Part 2 Impact of sea level rise on agricultural landscape, deforestation and sustainability financing
Recent research shows that sea level rise could reduce crop yields by up to 30 % in coastal India, shrink mangrove cover by 15–25 % in the Sundarbans, and widen sustainability‑financing gaps by US $ 30–50 billion annually across Asia. These quantitative overlays make the diagram evidence‑driven and highlight the urgent need for integrated adaptation funding (Fig. 1, Table 1).
Fig. 1 The river‑flow diagram traces how sea level rise cascades into impacts on agricultural landscapes, deforestation, and sustainability financing, and then converges into shared outcomes. https://lnkd.in/djwfRxnP
1.Impact of Sea Level Rise on Agricultural Landscapes
Sea level rise (SLR) is a direct and escalating consequence of climate change, causing multiple stressors for agricultural systems, particularly in coastal regions:
a) Direct Land Loss
Inundation: Low-lying farmlands are permanently submerged, leading to the disappearance of arable land.
Coastal erosion: Wave action and storm surges exacerbate farmland loss.
Displacement: Farming communities face relocation, disrupting livelihoods.
b) Salinity Intrusion
Saltwater intrudes into soils and aquifers, rendering irrigation water unsuitable and degrading fertile soil.
High salinity reduces crop yields and may render land barren.
Vulnerable areas include delta regions and small island nations.
c) Altered Hydrology and Flooding
SLR affects river flows, drainage, and can increase waterlogging during storms or high tides.
Prolonged waterlogging reduces oxygen availability to crops, lowering yields or causing crop death.
d) Climate-Change-Amplified Stressors
Rising sea levels intensify tropical cyclones and extreme weather events.
Alteration of coastal ecosystems affects pollinators and beneficial soil microbiota.
Increased temperature and precipitation variability contribute to pest proliferation and plant stress.
e) Socio-Economic Consequences
Loss of agricultural income leads to food insecurity.
Migration and climate refugees arise due to land and livelihood loss.
Economic costs for adaptation and recovery escalate (Bhattacharyya et al. 2020; Das and Swain 2024; Sustainability Directory 2026; Gopalakrishnan et al.).
Table 1 Impact of sea level rise on agricultural landscape, deforestation and sustainability financing
2. Interlinkage with Deforestation
a. Agricultural Expansion and Forest Conversion
• Deforestation is often driven by the need to expand agricultural lands in response to population growth or lost coastal arable land.
• Clearing forests (via shifting agriculture, commercial cropland, or mining) increases vulnerability to climate stressors.
b. Climate Interactions
• Forest loss contributes ~10% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
• Deforested areas decrease rainfall locally and exacerbate temperature rise.
• Mechanisms such as slash-and-burn reduce soil organic carbon, exacerbating land degradation.
c. Regional Examples
• India: Northern and Eastern forests converted to cropland; mangroves lost to agriculture, weakening coastal resilience.
• Global: Tropics and subtropics experience a majority of forest-to-agriculture transitions. (IPCC 2019; Jissn 2024).
3. Implications for Sustainability Financing
a. Financial Requirements
Adaptation and mitigation actions require massive capital: India estimates USD 2.5 trillion (2016-2030) for climate actions; additional USD 1.4 trillion needed for new infrastructure and technology.
• Investments target renewable energy, afforestation, sustainable agriculture, and coastal protection.
b. Financial Instruments and Policy
• Green Bonds: Funding clean energy, forestry, and adaptation projects.
• Derivatives and Hedging Mechanisms: Weather and agricultural commodity derivatives manage risks.
• Regulatory Measures: Standardized ESG reporting, climate-risk stress testing for banks, and mandatory disclosure requirements.
c. Strategic Integration
• Sustainable finance supports climate-smart agriculture, coastal ecosystem preservation, and community resilience.
• Aligns investments with global climate goals (Paris Agreement) while protecting local food systems. (Nelson 2023)
4. Synthesis and Recommendations
• Integrated Approach: Coastal agricultural sustainability requires combining agronomic adaptation, forest conservation, and financial instruments.
• Adaptation Measures: Salt-tolerant crops, rainwater harvesting, crop diversification, and enhanced drainage.
• Conservation Financing: Payment for ecosystem services and green bond markets can internally incentivize land sustainability.
•Policy Implementation: Engaging local stakeholders, gender-inclusive planning, and harmonizing urban- agriculture land-use conflicts.
• Long-Term Perspective: Reinforce ecosystem resilience, reduce deforestation-driven emissions, and maintain food security for vulnerable populations.
Conclusion
Sea level rise accelerates agricultural land loss, intensifies salinity, alters water regimes, and threatens food security. This pressure often drives deforestation, further amplifying climate risks. Implementing sustainability financing mechanisms-green bonds, derivatives, and climate-conscious investments- supports adaptive strategies while fostering low-carbon agricultural and forestry systems. A coordinated interplay of scientific, economic, and policy instruments is essential to ensure resilience and sustainable development in coastal regions.
References
Bhattacharyya, P., Dash, P. K., and Pathak, H. (2020). Climate Change and Coastal Agriculture: Impacts and Adaptation. Journal of the Indian Society of Coastal Agricultural Research, 38(2), 1-14. https://epubs.icar.org.in/index.php/JISCAR/article/view/98954
Das, A., and Bandyopadhyay, S. (2025). Discussion: ‘Exploratory modelling of the impacts of sea-level rise on the Sundarbans mangrove forest, West Bengal, India’ by Samanta et al. (2023), Science of the Total Environment, 903, 166624. Science of The Total Environment, 972, 178937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.178937
Das, A., & Swain, P. K. (2024). Navigating the sea level rise: Exploring the interplay of climate change, sea level rise, and coastal communities in India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 196(1010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-024-13191-z
Fanous, M., Eden, J. M., Remesan, R., and Daneshkhah, A. (2023). Challenges and prospects of climate change impact assessment on mangrove environments through mathematical models. Environmental Modelling & Software, 162, 105658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2023.105658
Gopalakrishnan, T., Hasan, M. K., Haque, A. T. M. S., Jayasinghe, S. L., & Kumar, L. (2019). Sustainability of Coastal Agriculture under Climate Change. Sustainability, 11(24), 7200. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11247200
IPCC (2019). Chapter 4: Land degradation. In Climate Change and Land: An IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC. https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/chapter/chapter-4/
Jissn, J. (2024). Deforestation, climate change, and the sustainability of agriculture. Journal of Resources and Ecology, 15(1), 12–25. https://doi.org/10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2024.01.012
Nelson, M. (2023). India: A case study in climate mitigation and adaptation. GARP Risk Institute. 2023, September 14. https://www.garp.org/risk-intelligence/sustainability-climate/india-case-study-climate-mitigation-211018
Samanta, S., Hazra, S., French, J. R., Nicholls, R. J., and Mondal, P. P. (2023). Exploratory modelling of the impacts of sea-level rise on the Sundarbans mangrove forest, West Bengal, India. Science of The Total Environment, 903, 166624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166624
Sustainability Directory. (2026). How does sea-level rise affect agriculture? Sustainability Directory. 2026, May 2. https://climate.sustainability-directory.com/question/how-does-sea-level-rise-affect-agriculture/